A dream led me to discover the work of Dr. David S. Efurd, a two-time Fulbright recipient, associate professor, and chair of art and art history who has spent decades documenting the Buddhist cave sites of western India. Armed with a notebook and a handheld camera, he has visited more than 80 caves and captured over 10,000 photographs, which are now available through Artstor. This extraordinary archive reveals remarkably preserved monasteries carved directly into volcanic basalt cliff faces, along with religious art, monuments, architectural details, and sacred spaces dating back to the second century BC.

Efurd’s work is grounded in the practice of “slow looking,” in which he spends days closely observing spaces that many visitors might pass through in minutes. Through that deliberate attention, he reveals these ancient sites not only as extraordinary historical monuments, but as living places of religious expression and ongoing preservation.

What provoked your interest in early Buddhist monasteries, and how long have you
been studying them?
‘I was first introduced to early Buddhist caves by Walter Spink, who was the world’s
leading scholar on the Ajanta caves in India. Every year, he would visit Ajanta. There,
he rented out a room for himself at the MTDC hotel near the caves year-round. Walter
hosted a site seminar for students every July and invited me many years ago. The main
focus of the seminar was the later caves of Ajanta and Ellora, but during our time
together, we also ventured to a wonderful ruined site called Pitalkhora. It is probably
among the earliest of the caves in western India and dates from the second or first
century BCE. I had never heard of the place and was completely enthralled by what was
left there and what the remains suggested it once was. That was about a quarter
century ago, and I find myself continuing to revisit these early cave sites.’

Why do you think these specific stone cliffs were chosen for the monasteries? Is it
because of majestic surroundings, geography, isolation, or something else? 
‘Many factors were at work in their selection. They include social and economic
geography, durability of stone, and religious practice, to name a few. Pertaining to
geography and geology, one finds enormous outcroppings of volcanic basalt in western
India, typically referred to as ghats. The availability of this stone allowed for the carving
of massive, enduring structures directly into it with little risk of collapse. Due to their
durability, they provided shelter for monks during the vassa, or the monsoon season.
During this three-month period of heavy rain, the monks ceased traveling to take up a
fixed residence.

‘However, these sites were not chosen for total isolation. While the ghats offered a quiet
space for meditation and instruction, they were located along major trade routes and
often within walking distance of villages or cities. This proximity was essential for the
symbiotic relationship between the monastic and lay communities in Buddhism. The
laity provided physical sustenance through alms, while the monastic community
provided spiritual guidance and merit-making opportunities by receiving gifts and
support.’

Do you think the builders thought about light when designing the interior spaces? And
if so, how?
‘Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of several caves is their relationship to the sun.
Walter Spink, whom I mentioned earlier, discovered that two caves at Ajanta were aligned
with the winter solstice. Both are of a type that have a ‘caitya’ window, an enormous
round aperture, carved into their façades to allow light into the interior. Once a year, the
light falls directly on the image of a Buddha sculpted on the relic monument housed
within a cave.

‘Twice a year, at nearby Ellora, a similar cave possesses a much smaller aperture filtering a narrow band of sunlight onto the face of the Buddha carved in the central hall. It is an extraordinary technical achievement of the ancient world, visible even today. The event is celebrated annually in March and is known as Kirnotsav, or the festival of the sun’s rays.

‘Even among the earlier caves, light transforms the interior at different times of day.
Often, the time preceding sunset yields the most dramatic effects.’

What do these caves tell us about everyday monastic life? 
‘One aspect of the caves I find so thought-provoking, and it served as the focus of my
early research, was that these cave sites really are not just a grouping of the largest,
densely-ornamented monuments that typically attract our attention. They can also be
modest spaces, or modular components of larger caves, where the monks lived their
lives and tended to their duties. Some caves are a conglomeration of monastic cells
arranged around a central hall. Some caves might consist of only a pair of monastic
cells. And these small rooms have rock-cut beds where they slept. In a few instances,
there may be modest chambers with a bench or shelf that may have served as a seat
for meditation. Inscriptions and a line of low seats may tell us that a cave served as a
refectory for the monks. Cisterns and tanks cut into the rock show us how they survived
after the monsoon ended.’

What symbolic or philosophical ideas are expressed in the artwork?
‘Many early Buddhist sites do not have images of Buddhas, unless they were carved into
the rock at a later date, while caves from about the fourth or fifth century CE do display
Buddhas and other enlightened beings called Bodhisattvas.

‘What one finds among the early caves are railings or fencelike motifs that denote sanctity, as well as some sacred symbols like the Triratna, the “triple gem” that conveys taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma or teachings of the Buddha, and the Sangha or community, often interpreted as the monastic community. Depictions of many other types of beings appear at these caves. A popular motif is mithuna, amorous figural groupings conveying their
relationship to one another through the act of touch. While images of lovers might seem
an unusual choice for a Buddhist cave, they are considered auspicious and a powerful
representation of fertility and abundance in the world. Other beings, such as nature
spirits known as yakshas, may also be represented.

‘Appearance of these creatures in the sculpted program of the cave signals their subordination to the Buddha and their acceptance of the Dharma.’

How did the role of these monasteries change as Buddhism declined in India?
‘Many of the early Buddhist cave sites in western India continued to be inhabited by
Buddhists who refurbished the caves in the fourth and fifth centuries. In some cases,
they added paintings depicting Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (important enlightened
beings in Buddhism) or sculpted them into walls and areas of the caves that were once
unadorned. Over time, many sites faced depopulation. Some remote sites, like the
Ajanta caves, were abandoned and virtually forgotten except by local people. More
accessible sites, such as Karle, were appropriated by Hindu communities. Buddhist
halls were often rededicated for local Brahmanical devotion, and some images of
Buddhas and Buddhist deities were worshiped as divine forms in the Hindu pantheon.’

What is your process of researching the sites you go to photograph, and who do you
travel with?  
‘I like to practice slow looking onsite, which some people may be familiar with as a
popular contemplative approach to viewing art in a museum. Spending long periods of
time in a cave, including over a number of days or during return trips, provides a means
to gain deep insights about its design, layout, and spatial characteristics, as well as its
decorative program. Taking measurements is essential, too, as rock-cut caves are also
enormous sculpted spaces where the typical adherence to exacting straight and plumb
lines seen in architecture are not a necessity, and deviations from them are typically
invisible.

‘When I take photographs, I may be interested in capturing a particular architectural or
sculptural component, or the conjoining of architectural features, such as a pillar and the
molding at the spring of the vaulted ceiling. Sometimes, an opportunity presents itself in
which the framing of a photograph speaks to an experience of being inside the cave at a
particular moment in time. I believe that photographs often may serve as documentation
while fulfilling aesthetic goals, including conveying through visual means the aesthetic
experience of visiting the site.’

How many caves have you visited, and how many more do you suspect there are in
India?
‘I believe I have visited around 82 sites throughout India, including Buddhist, Hindu, and
Jain excavations carved into the living rock. In addition, I have visited sites in Sri Lanka, China, and Korea that are mainly Buddhist in affiliation, except for a Daoist site in China featuring carved images of gods and immortals.

‘Finds of isolated caves occur from time to time in India, and I would speculate that somewhere there is a major site yet to be found. I have been to some sites with partially underground caves, half-filled with mud and debris from monsoon runoff. When looking back a couple of centuries, the discovery of some major sites often began with a cave filled with debris or the unknown presence of an entire lower story waiting to be uncovered. Recently, the removal of a boulder to build steps and a clear path to the site of Ghatotkacha yielded a carved nagaraja, a serpent king, that had not been seen for at least a half millennium.’

What happens when you encounter people currently living or worshipping in these
caves? Have any interactions stayed with you?
‘There is a great tradition of gurus and saints living in ancient caves after the
abandonment by earlier communities of monks. In cases where some of the remote
sites are inhabited, I might be invited in as an honored guest to sit with the present
occupants or be permitted to photograph the areas that they are comfortable with me
seeing. It is important in these cases to understand my role as a visitor and be
respectful towards their wishes.

‘I have a ‘vague’ experience to relate—I don’t want to divulge the location. But I was
visiting the site, and due to my interest in it, I returned the next day. On that day, I was
led to a cave typically off-limits with a locked entrance on a much lower level than the
rest of the excavations into the rock. I was permitted to enter. As it happened, there was
a colossal sculpture housed inside the cave (which explains its lower entrance and
vertical dimensions). I felt very fortunate to be one of the few people allowed in to see it.’

What are the caves mainly used for now, and are they respected/well-preserved?
‘The caves overwhelmingly are historical sites, and they are typically managed with an
interest towards preservation. Nevertheless, religious heritage is taken seriously in
India, and there is usually some balance struck between protecting sites and permitting
some religious expression within them.’

Are there any protocols that you follow before entering the caves or during your
visit?
Currently, I am on a Fulbright that requires an Indian research visa approval. I petitioned
the different regional circles of the Archaeological Survey of India for additional leeway to photograph and take measurements at sites under their jurisdiction. On other trips, I have traveled simply as a tourist, photographing with a handheld camera. I always have a notebook handy to take notes and scribble ideas related to design that previously escaped my notice. Getting the special permission helps when spending hours inside a cave, as most visitors typically only stay for a few minutes.’

What about the caves that are now dedicated to Hindu gods or goddesses? Is there
something that you do in order to respect the way the caves are currently being used?
‘I have noticed in recent years that many caves, whether technically “living” or not, have
posted signs encouraging visitors to remove shoes before entering. This occurs not only
at Hindu sites but also at Buddhist and Jain caves. Photography is typically permitted at
sites under the control of the ASI and regional archaeological departments, while other
sites may restrict photography in certain areas. My own experience suggests
practitioners of the various religious traditions to be equally welcoming to visitors who
are respectful towards the rituals and activities taking place.’

Do you experience these caves more as historical sites or living spiritual spaces?
‘Many are historical sites under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India, and
as such, they continue to welcome visitors and pilgrims alike. My eye is often trained to
issues related to the excavation of rock and the execution of architectural features and
sculptures, although I am also constantly thinking about how these caves were created
with the religious community in mind.

‘I find it a profound experience when I am in a cave, and visitors perform rituals at the site. They may engage in practices that I might not always take into account when concentrating on photography, such as music, chanting, or taking part in rituals when seated or kneeling on the floor.’

What do we still not understand about these monasteries?
‘I believe we are entering a phase in which we acknowledge the great care and thoughtfulness expressed through the design and execution of caves. Before,
observations like alleged inconsistencies in form and ornament may have prevented this
conclusion because we were interpreting them according to a Western mindset.
However, the more we observe and measure, the more connections and
correspondences become visible.

‘I already mentioned the caves created with the path of the sun in mind. My own work focuses on the caitya hall at Karle, one of the largest early Buddhist caves, and how its system of proportions, architectural features, and ornament follow mathematical relationships. These observations are made possible due to the well-preserved remains at the site, and work at other early Buddhist caves supports the use of similar measurements and proportions in their design. Without a close reading of these sites, leaving preconceived notions behind, we risk not understanding the intent of creating these ancient sacred spaces.’

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